TOP CATEGORY: Chemicals & Materials | Life Sciences | Banking & Finance | ICT Media
Download Report PDF Instantly
Report overview
MARKET INSIGHTS
Global Peritoneal Dialysis (PD) Supplies market was valued at USD 2,936 million in 2025 and is projected to reach USD 4,553 million by 2034, exhibiting a CAGR of 6.6% during the forecast period.
Peritoneal Dialysis (PD) supplies refer to the set of disposable and periodically replaced medical consumables used to deliver peritoneal dialysis therapy, in which a patient's peritoneal membrane acts as a semi-permeable barrier to remove uremic toxins, correct electrolyte imbalance, and control fluid overload when the kidneys fail. Typical PD supplies include sterile dialysate solutions, solution bags and overwraps, tubing sets and transfer sets, PD catheters with accessories, connectors, disinfecting caps, drain bags, dressings, and — when used with automated peritoneal dialysis (APD) — single-use cassettes and dedicated disposable tubing assemblies that interface with the cycler.
The market is experiencing steady growth driven by rising global prevalence of chronic kidney disease and end-stage kidney disease, expanding policy support for home-based care models, and continuous clinical focus on reducing peritonitis and catheter-related complications. In 2025, global production capacity of PD supplies reached 600 million units, with total sales volume amounting to 527 million units and an average selling price of approximately USD 6.1 per unit. Corporate gross margins generally ranged between 35% and 50%, reflecting the high sterility and quality-system requirements inherent to this product category. Fresenius, Baxter, and B. Braun are among the key players operating in the market with broad and established product portfolios.
Rising Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease and End-Stage Renal Disease
The global Peritoneal Dialysis (PD) Supplies market is experiencing steady growth, driven primarily by the increasing incidence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD). With millions of patients worldwide requiring dialysis therapy due to kidney failure, PD offers a viable home-based alternative to hemodialysis, addressing critical needs like toxin removal and fluid management through the peritoneal membrane. In 2025, the market was valued at $2,936 million and is projected to reach $4,553 million by 2034, growing at a CAGR of 6.6%. This expansion reflects the growing patient population, where PD supplies such as dialysate solutions, catheters, and drainage bags play a central role. Global production capacity hit 600 million units in 2025, with sales reaching 527 million units at an average selling price of $6.1 per unit, underscoring robust demand. While hemodialysis dominates, PD's appeal lies in its flexibility for patients preferring independence, further boosted by healthcare systems prioritizing cost-effective, decentralized care models. These dynamics position PD supplies as essential for managing the escalating burden of kidney disease.
Shift Towards Home-Based Dialysis Therapies for Enhanced Patient Quality of Life
The transition to home dialysis modalities like continuous ambulatory PD (CAPD) and automated PD (APD) is a key driver, as patients and providers seek greater lifestyle flexibility and reduced hospital dependency. PD supplies, including tubing sets, transfer sets, disinfecting caps, and single-use cassettes for cyclers, enable safe self-administration at home, lowering infection risks and improving outcomes compared to in-center treatments. This shift gained momentum post-pandemic, with health systems emphasizing resource efficiency and patient-centered care. Corporate gross margins in the sector range from 35% to 50%, supporting investments in user-friendly innovations that simplify workflows. For instance, advancements in sterile connection technology have significantly reduced peritonitis rates, a major historical barrier, making PD more viable for long-term use. As adoption rises in regions with mature home care infrastructures, the demand for reliable, biocompatible supplies intensifies, fueling market expansion.
Moreover, policy support for home therapies is accelerating this trend.
➤ Government initiatives worldwide are promoting PD to alleviate dialysis center overcrowding and cut healthcare costs.
Furthermore, leading players like Baxter and Fresenius are expanding production and distribution networks, enhancing accessibility and driving sustained growth over the forecast period.
Technological Advancements in PD Supplies Reducing Complications
Innovations in PD supplies, such as improved biocompatibility of dialysate solutions and advanced connection devices, are propelling market growth by minimizing complications like peritonitis and catheter infections. These sterile, disposable consumables—ranging from solution bags with osmotic agents to protective dressings and valves—have evolved to support safer, more efficient therapies. The focus on low-touch workflows and better packaging has shifted competition toward superior safety profiles, with clinicians prioritizing products that ensure consistent performance. This is particularly evident in APD systems, where dedicated cassettes interface seamlessly with cyclers, optimizing therapy delivery. Such developments not only boost patient adherence but also align with heightened regulatory standards for sterility and traceability, reinforcing trust in PD as a scalable option.
MARKET CHALLENGES
Persistent Risk of Peritonitis and Infection Complications Hinders Widespread Adoption
The PD Supplies market shows promising growth, yet it grapples with significant clinical challenges, particularly the ongoing threat of peritonitis, which remains the leading cause of technique failure. Despite improvements, infections linked to connections, catheters, and poor aseptic techniques continue to impact patient outcomes and deter broader uptake. These issues demand rigorous infection control measures, elevating the complexity of supply design and use. Manufacturing under stringent quality systems is essential, but real-world application in home settings exposes vulnerabilities, affecting confidence among providers and patients alike.
Other Challenges
Regulatory Hurdles
Intensive regulatory scrutiny for sterility, biocompatibility, and labeling compliance adds layers of complexity and cost, slowing product approvals and market entry, especially for innovative designs.
Patient Training and Compliance Issues
Inadequate training infrastructure leads to errors in handling supplies, amplifying risks and limiting PD's potential in regions with limited nursing support.
Infrastructure Limitations and Low PD Penetration in Key Markets Restrain Expansion
Peritoneal Dialysis supplies hold strong potential in managing ESRD, but integration faces notable hurdles. Low global PD penetration, hovering around 11%, stems from entrenched preferences for hemodialysis and insufficient home care support. Off-target issues like encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis further raise safety concerns, prompting caution among clinicians. These factors create barriers, as consistent supply of high-quality dialysate and accessories requires robust cold-chain logistics, often challenged in emerging regions.
Additionally, scaling production while upholding quality amid raw material volatility—such as medical-grade polymers and pharmaceutical chemicals—poses difficulties. The sector's expansion demands skilled personnel for manufacturing and training, yet shortages persist due to specialized needs, hampering adoption and growth.
Strategic Partnerships and Expansions in Emerging Markets Offer Lucrative Growth Avenues
Escalating investments in home dialysis infrastructure are opening substantial opportunities for PD supplies. With Asia-Pacific and Latin America witnessing rapid CKD rises, demand for affordable, reliable consumables like catheters, drainage bags, and biocompatible fluids is surging. Major players are pursuing acquisitions and local manufacturing to tap these markets, leveraging economies of scale for competitive pricing.
Additionally, regulatory approvals for next-gen products and digital integration for adherence monitoring promise further upside, positioning PD supplies within comprehensive therapy ecosystems.
Dialysis Fluid Segment Dominates the Market Due to its Essential Role in Daily Peritoneal Dialysis Exchanges and High Recurring Demand
The market is segmented based on type into:
Dialysis Fluid
Subtypes: Glucose-based solutions, Icodextrin-based solutions, Bicarbonate/lactate-buffered solutions, and others
Catheter
Subtypes: Straight Tenckhoff catheters, Curled Tenckhoff catheters, Swan-neck catheters, and others
Drainage Bag
Other
Single-Use Products Segment Leads Due to Strict Sterility Requirements and Infection Prevention Protocols in PD Therapy
The market is segmented based on use attributes into:
Single-Use Products
Reusable Components
Sterile Packaged Products Segment Dominates Owing to Regulatory Mandates for Microbial Control and Patient Safety
The market is segmented based on packaging into:
Sterile Packaged Products
Non-Sterile Packaged Products
Hospital Segment Leads Due to High Initial Adoption in Acute Care and Training Environments
The market is segmented based on application into:
Hospital
Clinic
Other
Companies Strive to Strengthen their Product Portfolio to Sustain Competition
The competitive landscape of the Peritoneal Dialysis (PD) Supplies market is semi-consolidated, featuring a mix of large, medium, and small-sized players. Baxter International Inc. stands out as a leading player, driven by its comprehensive product portfolio—including sterile dialysate solutions, tubing sets, and automated PD cassettes—and robust global presence across North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, and emerging markets. The company's emphasis on infection prevention technologies and home-based therapy support has solidified its dominant position.
Fresenius Medical Care AG & Co. KGaA and B. Braun Melsungen AG also commanded significant market shares in 2025. Their growth stems from innovative offerings like biocompatible dialysates and user-friendly connection systems, coupled with strong footholds in hospital and clinic segments. These firms benefit from ongoing advancements in reducing peritonitis risks and improving patient adherence through simplified workflows.
Furthermore, growth initiatives such as geographical expansions into high-growth regions like Asia and Latin America, alongside frequent new product launches focused on sustainable packaging and low-touch sterile connections, are poised to substantially increase their market shares through the forecast period to 2034. While demand for PD supplies remains steady, with global sales volume reaching 527 million units in 2025 at an average selling price of USD 6.1 per unit, competition intensifies around supply chain reliability and regulatory compliance.
Meanwhile, players like Nipro Corporation and Asahi Kasei Corporation are bolstering their presence via heavy R&D investments in next-generation catheters and drainage bags, strategic partnerships for localized manufacturing, and expansions into reusable components with enhanced durability. This approach not only addresses key challenges like raw material volatility and sterilization capacity but also aligns with shifting priorities toward biocompatibility and end-to-end patient support. Tighter regulations are accelerating consolidation, favoring those with proven traceability and disruption-resilient operations. Smaller entities differentiate via curated care kits and digital integration, yet leaders maintain an edge through scale and lifecycle services. Overall, success hinges on delivering safety, usability, and consistent supply amid rising home-care adoption.
Baxter International Inc. (U.S.)
Fresenius Medical Care AG & Co. KGaA (Germany)
B. Braun Melsungen AG (Germany)
Nipro Corporation (Japan)
Asahi Kasei Corporation (Japan)
Nikkiso Co., Ltd. (Japan)
Toray Medical Co., Ltd. (Japan)
Kawasumi Laboratories, Inc. (Japan)
Medtronic plc (Ireland)
Terumo Corporation (Japan)
The global Peritoneal Dialysis (PD) Supplies market, valued at $2,936 million in 2025, is projected to reach $4,553 million by 2034, growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.6% during the forecast period. This robust trajectory reflects a fundamental shift toward home-based dialysis therapies, where PD supplies enable patients to manage end-stage kidney disease outside traditional in-center hemodialysis settings. Key advancements in sterile connection technologies, such as disinfecting caps, low-touch transfer sets, and automated connection systems, have dramatically reduced peritonitis rates—the primary barrier to wider PD adoption—by minimizing contamination risks during bag exchanges and cassette loading. Furthermore, improvements in dialysate biocompatibility, with reduced glucose degradation products and icodextrin-based formulations, preserve peritoneal membrane function longer, supporting sustained therapy efficacy. In 2025, global production capacity hit 600 million units, with sales volumes reaching 527 million units at an average selling price of $6.1 per unit, underscoring steady demand amid these innovations. Health systems increasingly prioritize PD for its cost efficiencies and patient lifestyle benefits, while manufacturers focus on intuitive designs that simplify workflows for non-expert users.
Rising Demand for Biocompatible and Patient-Centric Supplies
Clinicians and patients alike are demanding more biocompatible PD solutions to mitigate long-term complications like membrane sclerosis and ultrafiltration failure. Dialysate fluids with amino acid or bicarbonate/lactate buffers, alongside multi-chamber bags that prevent solution degradation, are gaining traction because they enhance tolerability and reduce metabolic stress. Corporate gross margins, typically ranging from 35% to 50%, reflect the premium pricing power of these advanced formulations. Concurrently, patient-centric innovations—such as pre-assembled kits, ergonomic connectors, and antimicrobial dressings—address usability challenges, fostering greater adherence. This trend aligns with broader healthcare pushes for personalized care pathways, where supplies integrate seamlessly with digital apps for regimen tracking and complication alerts.
Integration with Automated PD (APD) Systems
The proliferation of automated PD cyclers has boosted demand for single-use cassettes, dedicated tubing assemblies, and precision valves, which ensure accurate fluid cycling overnight. These disposables now dominate in mature markets, offering convenience for patients with limited dexterity or daytime schedules. Enhanced upstream materials like medical-grade polymers and validated sterilization methods further enable reliable performance, while regulatory emphasis on end-to-end traceability bolsters trust. However, uneven reimbursement and training infrastructure temper adoption in emerging regions, highlighting opportunities for bundled service models that include education and remote monitoring.
Supply chain disruptions have heightened focus on resilient manufacturing, with leading players investing in diversified sourcing for polymers, electrolytes, and barrier packaging to maintain uninterrupted delivery of critical supplies. Gross margins remain healthy at 35-50%, but volatility in raw materials underscores the need for strategic stockpiling and cleanroom expansions. Sustainability emerges as a differentiator too: recyclable overwraps, reduced-plastic tubing, and eco-friendly sterilization alternatives address waste concerns from high-volume disposables. Policymakers and providers favor suppliers demonstrating robust compliance, from ISO 13485 quality systems to EPR (extended producer responsibility) frameworks. While challenges like institutional inertia persist, these trends position PD supplies as integral to efficient, home-centric renal care ecosystems, promising sustained growth through innovation and reliability.
North America
North America leads the Peritoneal Dialysis (PD) Supplies market, driven by advanced healthcare infrastructure, high prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD), and strong emphasis on home-based dialysis therapies. The U.S., in particular, benefits from favorable reimbursement policies under Medicare, which covers PD supplies comprehensively for end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients, encouraging a shift from in-center hemodialysis to patient-managed CAPD and APD modalities. Major players like Baxter and Fresenius dominate, offering integrated solutions including biocompatible dialysate fluids, secure transfer sets, and automated cycler disposables, which align with clinical priorities to minimize peritonitis risks through advanced sterile connection technologies. In 2025, the region's mature market reflects steady demand, supported by robust patient education programs and telehealth integration that enhance adherence and outcomes. However, challenges persist, such as the need for ongoing training to address caregiver burden and technique failure rates. Regulatory oversight by the FDA ensures stringent quality standards for sterility and biocompatibility, pushing innovations in low-touch connectors and disinfecting caps. Canada and Mexico contribute through expanding home dialysis initiatives; Canada's provincial funding models promote PD uptake, while Mexico sees growth amid rising diabetes-related ESRD cases. Overall, the focus on quality of life improvements and cost efficiencies for health systems—PD can reduce hospitalization rates—fuels sustained expansion. Supply chain resilience is critical here, with localized manufacturing mitigating disruptions, and gross margins averaging 40-50% due to premium pricing for trusted brands. As health systems prioritize value-based care, demand for bundled kits with dressings, drain bags, and digital adherence tools will intensify, positioning North America for above-average growth within the global CAGR of 6.6%.
Europe
Europe's PD Supplies market thrives on comprehensive universal healthcare systems and rigorous regulatory frameworks, notably the EU MDR and EMA guidelines that enforce high biocompatibility and infection control standards for dialysate solutions, catheters, and tubing sets. Germany, France, and the U.K. spearhead adoption, with Germany's nephrology networks promoting PD as a first-line home therapy, supported by statutory health insurance reimbursements that favor flexible, patient-centric options over hemodialysis. Fresenius and B. Braun, both European powerhouses, leverage regional production to supply optimized APD cassettes and protective devices, addressing peritonitis concerns that remain a key barrier to wider uptake. The region's aging population and high CKD incidence—exacerbated by diabetes and hypertension—drive consistent demand, with sales volumes bolstered by multidisciplinary training clinics. Yet, variability across countries poses hurdles; while Nordic nations excel in patient support ecosystems, Southern Europe grapples with economic pressures constraining reimbursement. Innovation centers on sustainable packaging and eco-friendly polymers, aligning with EU green initiatives, though cost sensitivities limit rapid shifts. Clinical guidelines emphasize reduced membrane deterioration via icodextrin-based fluids, influencing procurement toward proven suppliers. Supply chains emphasize traceability, with validated sterilization processes ensuring reliability. Despite institutional inertia favoring in-center care in some areas, policy pushes for home dialysis—such as the U.K.'s renal pathway reforms—promise acceleration. Europe's market benefits from cross-border collaborations, enhancing workflow simplicity and lifecycle support, ensuring steady alignment with global trends toward infection-minimized, user-friendly consumables.
Asia-Pacific
Asia-Pacific represents the fastest-growing PD Supplies market, propelled by massive population bases, surging CKD burdens from urbanization, diabetes epidemics, and improving healthcare access in China, Japan, India, and Southeast Asia. China leads volume consumption, with over 500,000 dialysis patients annually shifting toward PD amid government home-care incentives, while India's cost-sensitive landscape favors affordable dialysate bags and basic catheters from local firms like WEGO and Jiangxi Kelun alongside globals like Baxter. The region's 2025 production capacity contributes significantly to the global 600 million units, reflecting extensive manufacturing hubs producing medical-grade polymers and sterile assemblies. However, adoption varies: Japan and South Korea boast high PD penetration due to advanced APD tech and reimbursement, emphasizing biocompatible solutions to curb complications. Challenges include training infrastructure gaps and peritonitis rates two-to-three times higher than in the West, prompting investments in disinfecting caps and closed-system connectors. Economic growth fuels infrastructure for home therapy, but raw material volatility and regulatory harmonization efforts under ASEAN frameworks slow premium product uptake. Key drivers are policy reforms promoting self-care—China's tiered reimbursement—and clinician focus on long-term outcomes. Smaller players differentiate via bundled kits, while leaders integrate digital monitoring. Urbanization accelerates demand for portable, intuitive supplies, balancing cost with safety. With global sales at 527 million units in 2025, Asia-Pacific captures a dominant share, poised for robust expansion through upstream advances in extrusion and sterile packaging, overcoming inertia via education and service models.
South America
South America's PD Supplies market is nascent yet promising, hampered by economic instability, uneven reimbursement, and reliance on imported supplies in Brazil and Argentina. Brazil, home to Latin America's largest dialysis population exceeding 140,000 patients, sees gradual PD growth via SUS public system expansions favoring home modalities to alleviate center overloads. Local assembly of tubing sets and drain bags emerges, but dependence on Baxter and B. Braun for dialysate and catheters persists due to quality demands. High diabetes prevalence drives ESRD cases, yet peritonitis risks and training shortages limit uptake to under 15% of patients. Regulatory progress via ANVISA aligns with international sterility standards, spurring biocompatible innovations, though funding volatility disrupts supply chains. Opportunities lie in affordable single-use products and caregiver kits tailored to resource-limited settings. Economic recovery post-pandemic enhances clinic integrations, with private sectors in urban areas adopting APD disposables for flexibility. Challenges include counterfeit risks and logistics hurdles in rural zones, underscoring needs for robust packaging and traceability. Policy shifts toward home dialysis—echoing global efficiency gains—coupled with clinician advocacy for complication reductions, foster optimism. While gross margins hover lower at 35%, volume potential from population growth supports entry strategies. Manufacturers targeting intuitive, low-cost workflows with infection controls can capture share, navigating constraints through partnerships and localized fulfillment.
Middle East & Africa
The Middle East & Africa PD Supplies market remains emerging, characterized by stark disparities: oil-rich Gulf nations like Saudi Arabia and UAE invest in state-of-the-art nephrology, importing premium solutions from Fresenius and Nipro, while Africa's sub-Saharan regions struggle with basic access amid high CKD burdens from hypertension and infections. UAE's Vision 2031 healthcare push promotes home PD, with expatriate expertise aiding adoption of APD cassettes and secure transfer sets. Peritonitis control drives demand for disinfecting devices, yet continent-wide, supply disruptions and training deficits elevate risks. Regulatory fragmentation—SFDA in Saudi Arabia versus variable African agencies—challenges compliance, favoring established globals. Economic diversification funds infrastructure, but poverty limits reimbursement, confining growth to urban clinics. Population booms and diabetes surges necessitate scalable home therapies, with potential in cost-effective drainage bags and dressings. Innovation lags, focusing on resilient packaging for harsh climates. Key hurdles are caregiver capacity and adherence, amplifying dropout rates; solutions involve bundled support kits. Long-term prospects brighten via Belt-and-Road initiatives enhancing Asian supply links and WHO-guided policies. With global ASP at USD 6.1, affordability drives generics, but quality trumps price for trust. Strategic players emphasizing service integration and digital tools can unlock potential, aligning with worldwide shifts to patient-empowered, infection-safe ecosystems.
This market research report offers a holistic overview of global and regional markets for the forecast period 2025–2032. It presents accurate and actionable insights based on a blend of primary and secondary research.
✅ Market Overview
The Global Peritoneal Dialysis (PD) Supplies market was valued at USD 2,936 million in 2025 and is projected to reach USD 4,553 million by 2034, growing at a CAGR of 6.6%. Regional markets show North America leading with established infrastructure, while Asia-Pacific exhibits rapid expansion due to rising chronic kidney disease prevalence. Historical data from 2021 indicates steady growth, with 2025 production capacity at 600 million units and sales volume at 527 million units, average selling price of USD 6.1 per unit.
Growth trends are driven by increasing adoption of home-based dialysis, with volume projections estimating sustained demand for disposables. Value growth reflects premium pricing for biocompatible products and infection-control features, projecting annual increases aligned with 6.6% CAGR, supported by corporate gross margins of 35%-50%.
✅ Segmentation Analysis
By product type: Dialysis Fluid dominates as the core consumable, followed by Catheters, Drainage Bags, and Others (tubing sets, connectors, dressings). Dialysis solutions account for the majority of revenue due to high-volume usage in CAPD and APD regimens.
By application/usage: Primarily for chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease treatment via CAPD and APD modalities, addressing uremic toxin removal and fluid management.
By end-user: Hospitals and clinics lead, with 'Other' encompassing home care settings, which are expanding rapidly due to patient preference for flexibility.
By use attributes: Single-use products prevail for sterility, including bags and tubing; reusable components like certain catheters see limited application. Packaging segmented into sterile (dominant) and non-sterile.
✅ Regional Insights
North America holds significant share due to advanced healthcare; Europe emphasizes reimbursement-driven adoption; Asia-Pacific grows fastest with China and India leading CKD burden; Latin America and Middle East & Africa show emerging potential amid infrastructure development.
Country-level: US and Canada dominate North America; Germany, France, UK in Europe; China, Japan, India key in Asia; Brazil in Latin America; Saudi Arabia, UAE in MEA, with detailed revenue and volume forecasts 2025-2032.
✅ Competitive Landscape
Leading companies include Fresenius, Baxter, B. Braun, Nipro, Asahi Kasei, holding top-five share over 60% in 2025. Profiles highlight Baxter's PD solution dominance and Fresenius' integrated offerings.
Key strategies involve M&A for capacity expansion, partnerships for local manufacturing (e.g., in Asia), and global supply chain optimizations to ensure reliability.
Product portfolios feature sterile dialysates, APD cassettes, catheters; pricing strategies balance premium biocompatible options with cost-effective bundles for emerging markets.
✅ Technology & Innovation
Emerging R&D focuses on biocompatible dialysates reducing peritonitis risk, advanced PD catheters with anti-kinking features, and low-touch connection systems.
Automation via APD cyclers, digitalization through telehealth monitoring apps, sustainability via eco-friendly polymers and reduced waste packaging.
IoT-enabled cyclers for remote adherence tracking and AI-driven predictive maintenance disrupt traditional workflows, enhancing patient outcomes and compliance.
✅ Market Dynamics
Key drivers: Rising ESRD incidence, shift to home dialysis for cost savings and QoL, innovations in infection control, supportive policies promoting PD penetration.
Restraints: High training requirements, peritonitis risks, reimbursement variability, competition from hemodialysis.
Supply chain trends include resilient sourcing of medical polymers and sterilization capacity; challenges from raw material volatility and regulatory tightening on sterility.
✅ Opportunities & Recommendations
High-growth segments: APD disposables, biocompatible fluids in Asia-Pacific.
Investment hotspots: China and India for volume growth, R&D in digital-integrated supplies.
Strategic suggestions: Stakeholders should prioritize infection-prevention innovations, expand home-care support programs, forge local partnerships for supply continuity.
✅ Stakeholder Insights
Target audience includes manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, investors, regulators, and policymakers.
-> Key players include Fresenius, Baxter, B. Braun, Nipro, Asahi Kasei, Nikkiso, among others.
-> Key growth drivers include increasing home dialysis adoption, rising chronic kidney disease prevalence, advancements in infection prevention, and demand for biocompatible solutions.
-> North America dominates the market, while Asia-Pacific is the fastest-growing region.
-> Emerging trends include biocompatible and low-GDP dialysates, IoT-integrated APD systems, sustainable packaging, and closed sterile connection technologies.
